Educational Communication Perspectives:
I. Oral Communication Perspective:
In general, oral programs emphasize use of spoken language
and listening. They are taught through oral/verbal instruction
or the use of an oral interpreter. No sign language is used.
Oral programs may use one or more of the following strategies/tools
for instruction: speech/audiological training, assistive-listening
devices, development of listening skills. Many oral programs
are private schools, however there are some public oral
programs. Modifications to audio and the addition of captioning
are the types of modifications that should be considered
for this population.
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Modifications to Consider:
A. Captioning
- Basic captions: A basic captioning modification
would consist of text appearing at some designated place
on the screen (preferably the bottom of screen). The text
would follow every spoken word by the characters in the
program. This feature would allow the user to use their
residual hearing in conjunction with the printed word.
This would reinforce listening skills as well as offer
read-along practice.
- Highlighting of words tied to audio
An additional modification to captioning could include
a "highlighted" captioning feature. As the words
are spoken the individual words would be highlighted so
that the user could "read-along" word by word
with the character. Such a modification would offer an
additional level of support in addition to the benefits
mentioned above.
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B. Sound levels
The user should have the option of increasing or decreasing
the volume of the characters' voices, sound effects and
any other auditory information presented in the program.
C. Frequency levels
Since deaf children tend to have losses in the higher frequency
range, an investigation should be made regarding the alteration
of the acoustical information in the software. A possible
modification could be the ability to adjust the frequency
of the characters' voices, sound effects and any other auditory
information (normal sound vs. lower frequency sound). The
teacher or individual user could set this feature as part
of a user profile.
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D. Visual clues:
- Blinking/highlighting:
Blinking or highlighting objects can be used as a way
to draw the user's attention to important icons or other
information. The use of blinking/highlighting may be used
as a way of indicating what object the person is to "click"
on. Blinking/highlighting may also be used to draw attention
to objects when instructions are being given.
- Animations
Animations can be used to demonstrate how to complete
a task. A character in the program may move about the
screen as they are explaining the directions. The animations
can be used with other visual clues, such as blinking/highlighting.
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II. Manual Communication Perspective:
The manual communication perspective contains several different
views on communication. One of these views is the bilingual/bicultural
philosophy which recognizes American Sign Language (ASL)
as the natural language of the deaf. They use ASL for instruction
and conceptual understanding of material. In addition, they
teach English as a second language for reading and writing.
The child is considered "bilingual" when they
have mastered both languages. The "bicultural"
aspect of this philosophy is that they teach both hearing
and deaf culture. They teach deaf children to be proud of
their deaf heritage. They expose the children to deaf adult
role models. Other manual communication programs may use
a variety of different types of sign language including
Pidgin Signed English (PSE), Signed English (SE), and Signing
Exact English (SEE). Often these types of programs use spoken
English in conjunction with signing (see Total Communication
Perspective below).
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Modifications to Consider:
A. Sign Language
A decision needs to be made regarding what type of signing
will be included in the program. This will likely depend
on whether different types of signing are available either
through Signing Avatar, video technology or other signing
animation. There are four types of signing that should be
considered: American Sign Language, Pidgin Signed English
, Signed English and Signing Exact English. Currently, Signing
Avatar uses PSE (also known as Conceptually Accurate Signed
English) and SE. Each type of signing has its own audience.
However, some forms of sign language are more accessible
to a greater number of signers. Modes of signing are not
completely isolated from one another. The different types
of signing follow more of a continuum rather than isolated
modalities. The less "English" structure the signing
contains, the closer it falls to ASL on the continuum. The
more "English" structure the signing contains
the closer it falls to SEE.
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- American Sign Language (ASL)
ASL is the natural language of the Deaf and also the most
used form of communication among the Deaf. However, if
a signing module is included in a program, it must be
understood that ASL signs will not match the speaker word
for word. ASL has its own grammatical structure (different
than English). ASL tends to be a visual or concept based
way of communication. Users who are only familiar with
SEE signs may have a difficult time understanding a pure
ASL model. Signing Avatar may be adapted to sign in an
ASL mode.
- Pidgin Signed English (PSE)
PSE is not a specific form of signing. The term PSE is
used to refer to signing that is in the middle of the
continuum of signing. PSE is often some form of combination
of ASL and a manually-coded English. PSE is a likely choice
for the signing module. A decision will need to be made
as to if the PSE signer will use ASL signs in an English
word order (Conceptually Accurate Signed English, CASE)
or use more of a manually-coded English like SE. It is
likely that most users who sign will be able to follow
a signer using a form of PSE. It can be matched closely
to the current spoken English audio on a program. Currently,
Signing Avatar offers PSE/CASE as an avatar option.
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- Signed English (SE)
SE is similar to SEE sign. It follows closely to English
grammar and structure. However, it has fewer supplementary
signs for endings of verbs and other words. SE is also
one of the forms currently available through Signing Avatar.
- Signing Exact English (SEE)
SEE, like ASL, is probably not the ideal choice to include
in a program unless all other forms of signing are also
included as options. SEE has a smaller audience of users
and educational programs as compared to PSE /ASL based
users and educational institutions. SEE is a form of manually-coded
English. It tends not to be as visually conceptual as
other modes of signing. SEE follows English grammar exactly
by using supplementary signs for endings such as -ing
or -ed. It would be difficult for ASL signers to follow
SEE signing.
B. Captioning (see Oral Communication
Perspective)
C. Sound levels (see Oral Communication
Perspective)
D. Frequency Levels (see Oral Communication
Perspective)
E. Visual clues (see Oral Communication
Perspective)
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3. Total Communication Perspective:
The total communication philosophy has many variations.
In general, they use a combination of various methods and
approaches to meet the individual child's needs. A combination
of sign language, fingerspelling and spoken English is often
used. The type of sign language used may vary: Signed Exact
English (SEE), Signed English (SE), American Sign Language
(ASL), or Pidgin Signed English (PSE). In addition, some
programs may include the use of Cued Speech to assist the
child in English access.
Modifications to Consider:
A. Sign Language (see Manual Communication
Perspective)
- American Sign Language (ASL)
- Pidgin Signed English (PSE)
- Signed English (SE)
- Signing Exact English (SEE)
B. Captioning (see Oral Communication
Perspective)
C. Sound levels (see Oral Communication
Perspective)
D. Frequency Levels (see Oral Communication
Perspective)
E. Visual clues(see Oral Communication
Perspective)
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This material is based upon work supported by the
National Science Foundation
under Grant No. 0079350. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions
or
recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s)
and do
not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.
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